A Russian Version of the Emotional Autonomy Scale: Primary Adaptation Data

Background The formation of emotional autonomy in child-parent relations is one of the main developmental tasks of adolescence (Havighurst, 1972). The theoretical framework of our study comes from the Age-Related Cultural-Historical Approach (Vygotsky, 2000; Leontiev, 1978; Bozhovich, 2009; Elkonin, 1972) and the Theory of Emotional Autonomy Formation by L. Steinberg & S. Silverberg (1986). Here we present the results of a test with the Russian version of the “Emotional Autonomy Scale” (EAS) as validated by L. Steinberg & S. Silverberg (1986). Objective We conducted a substantial psychometric analysis of the EAS scales on a Russian sample. Design The participants were 222 pupils from the 9th to 11th grades in Moscow schools (age 14–17; M = 15.89; SD = 0.91). A comparative and structural analysis was conducted to review the reliability of the EAS Russian version, administered by the authors. Methods The pupils were evaluated with 1) the authors’ Russian version of the EAS by L. Steinberg & S. Silverberg (1986); and 2) the Parent-Child Interaction questionnaire (PCI) by I. Markovskaya (1999). Results The fit of Steinberg’s original Four-factor model (L. Steinberg & S. Silverberg, 1986) and of the Beyers’ and colleagues’ Seven-factor model (2005) were studied on a Russian sample for the first time. The Four-factor model was chosen as the final model due to better fit indices and Cronbach’s alpha coefficient. The CFA showed the model fit indices to be acceptable (RMSEA = 0.07) or slightly less than the good fit values (CFI = 0.74). The validity analysis was conducted using the PCI by I. Markovskaya (1999). Conclusion The aim of theoretical analysis, approbation, and validation of the EAS on a Russian sample was achieved: the authors’ version of the EAS is a valid and reliable instrument to measure adolescents’ emotional autonomy in a Russian sample.


Introduction
In the Age-Specifi c Approach, the transformative features of the adolescentparent relations are considered to be characteristics of the social situation of development. SSD was defi ned by L.S. Vygotsky as "the unique, specifi c for a particular age, inimitable relationship between child and social surroundings" (Vygotsky, 2000, p. 903). Th e structure of the social situation of child's development includes two components: the fi rst, the objective component, refl ects the child's objective position in the system of socio-cultural expectations, norms, and requirements; the second, the subjective component, is the system of "orientated images" which defi nes the child's interaction and cooperation with peers and adults (Karabanova, 2010).
Th e subjective component is shared by the participants in their communication and interaction. Th e child builds up his relations with an adult in the process of active orientation (Galperin, 1989;Podolsky, 2012Podolsky, , 2017Podolsky & Idobaeva, 2014) and on the basis of his personal images in communication and cooperation. Adolescents' emotional experiences infl uence the way their development is aff ected by features of their social surroundings. Th eir communication with parents and peers and joint activity in diff erent contexts of SSD (family, school, friends, etc.) allow them to realize the diff erent trajectories and patterns of personal autonomy development and individuation in adolescence and youth (Dzukaeva & Sadovnikova, 2014;Kins, et. al., 2013;Litvinova, 2020;Poskrebysheva & Babkina, 2020;Ryan & Lynch, 1986).
Th e central developmental tasks of adolescence are the formation of an identity, the development of value orientations, the creation of an autonomous morality on the basis of a new level of teenagers' intellectual opportunities, the development of refl ection, and the construction of life plans (Havighurst, 1972). Th e "main age activity" (Leontiev, 1978) of adolescence is vocational self-determination (Elkonin, 1972;Klimov, 2004;Pryazhnikov, 2007).
Th ere is an objective necessity for parental involvement in the process of modern adolescents' professional future orientation. Th is need can be explained by the insuffi cient development of the adolescent's autonomy and the need to attract the resources of the parental family under the conditions of educational system modernization in the Russian Federation (Asmolov & Guseltseva, 2019;Karabanova, 2018;Klimov, et al., 2021;Konshina, 2018;Konshina & Sadovnikova, 2018;Molchanov, et al., 2019).
Th e separation-individuation process refers to specifi c developmental challenges in early childhood and adolescence. According to M. Mahler (1977), in early childhood separation-individuation can be considered a "psychological birth" process. Th e adolescent establishes a sense of individualized self and becomes less psychologically dependent on his parents, disengaging from the relations and representation of parental family that was formed in the infancy period. Th e concept of "emotional autonomy, " as proposed in the psychodynamic approach of the mid-1980s in the works of L. Steinberg and S. Silverberg, is based on the idea of a "second phase of separation-individuation, " which was suggested by P. Blos (1962Blos ( , 1967. Genuine autonomous functioning does not develop until late adolescence and coincides with the development of a coherent sense of personal identity (E. Erikson). L. Steinberg and S. Silverberg defi ne the term "emotional autonomy" as independency from parents, or individuation. Th e term was meaningfully connected with the concepts of "deidealization of parents" and "changing the image of parents in the 'eyes' of a teenager" (Steinberg & Silverberg, 1986). In the 1990s, L. Steinberg with colleagues (1993) clarifi ed the understanding of the emotional component of autonomy, paying particular attention to adolescents' changed perception of the parental image. Th e development of the "mature, " realistic, balanced image of parents, coupled with the adolescent's growing responsibility for his own decisions and values, are considered the basis for the emotional stability and emotional autonomy of the adolescent's personality. L. Steinberg's colleagues, S. Silverberg and M. Baltes, developed the concept of autonomy as the achievement of self-confi dence, and the increasing ability for self-regulation, related, among other things, to the learning process and behavioral aspects (Baltes & Silverberg, 1994). Th e authors also include in the concept of autonomy a person's own initiative, self-guidance, and independence, contrasting these personality traits with the propensity to obey, an obedience to "external" rules and authorities.
Th e "Emotional Autonomy Scale" (EAS) questionnaire was created based on this theory. Th e questionnaire operationalizes two cognitive components -"Parental Deidealization" and "Perceives Parents as People" -and two aff ective components -"Nondependency on Parents" and "Individuation" (Steinberg & Silverberg, 1986). Th e EAS permits us to assess features of emotional autonomy from the parents as the adolescents perceive them.
Th e development of emotional autonomy is an important line of psychological development in adolescence. Th e task of clarifying the theoretical construct and the need to adapt foreign methods for a Russian-language sample remain relevant (Beyers, et al., 2003;Dergacheva & Leontiev, 2011;Dozortseva & Burykina, 2016;Dund-arova, 2008;Poskrebysheva & Babkina, 2020). Th e EAS is widely used by researchers all over the world. T. Fuhrman & G. Holmbeck investigated the relationship between emotional autonomy and adolescents' adjustment as moderated by several individual, familial, and cultural contexts. Th eir study showed the positive association between emotional autonomy and adolescent adjustment in cases of a more stressful family environment. Th e fi ndings suggested that higher scores of emotional detachment from parents on the EAS index are detrimental in supportive familial environments but adaptive in less supportive familial environments (Fuhrman & Holmbeck, 1995).
A study of Indian adolescents organized by S. Tung & D. Sandhu showed significant positive correlations between all dimensions of emotional autonomy and wellbeing in adolescence. Th e "healthy" identity statuses of achievement and moratorium in the adolescent period also were positively correlated with emotional autonomy (Tung & Sandhu, 2005).
When studying the main family factors for the development of autonomy and separation processes in adolescence, Poskrebysheva and Babkina (2020) used three questionnaires: 1) the well-known SITA questionnaire developed by J.B. Levine with colleagues (Levine et al., 1986); 2) the "Autonomy questionnaire" for studying the autonomy of adolescents by N.N. Poskrebysheva and O.A. Karabanova (2010); and 3) the translation of the EAS into Russian proposed by the authors of this article in our earlier work (Konshina & Sadovnikova, 2018).
Few researchers have examined the factor structure of the EAS. Th e cross-cultural study of M. Schmitz & J. Baer (2001) showed that the EAS exhibited poor construct validity and behaved quite diff erently for diff erent grades (6, 8 and 10) and diff erent ethnic groups (African American, European American, and Mexican American). M. Schmitz & J. Baer off ered to reexamine the conceptual foundations of emotional autonomy and to develop better measures of those concepts for adolescents (Schmitz & Baer, 2001). In later research W. Beyers and colleagues also showed the lack of construct validity of the existing EAS factor structures on a Belgian sample of adolescents. Th e scientists suggested a model with seven fi rst-order factors (Deidealization, Nondependency, Non-imitation, Privacy, Perceived Ignorance, Distrust, and Perceived Alienation) and two second-order factors (Separation and Detachment) that proved invariant and equal across gender and grade (Beyers et al., 2005).
Modern Russian psychology has a lack of instruments for measuring autonomy. In spite of this, the issue of the autonomy development is widely studied by Russian researchers (Kharlamenkova et al., 2015;Karabanova & Poskrebysheva, 2013;Dzukaeva & Sadovnikova, 2014;Molchanov, Almazova, Zapunidi, & Poskrebysheva, 2017). Few questionnaires contain "autonomy" subscales (for example, the Russian version of ADOR questionnaire by Wasserman, Gor'kovaya, & Romytsina (2001), and the Parent-Child Interaction questionnaire by I. Markovskaya (Markovskaya, 1999). Th e "Autonomy questionnaire" was developed by N. Poskrebysheva & O. Karabanova in 2010 as a new method to research four aspects of adolescents' autonomy. Th e study also contained the Russian version of the EAS. In this research, correlation analysis of the EAS Russian version didn't show signifi cant correlations with valid Russian questionnaires -the ADOR (Adolescents about Parents) by Was-serman, Gor'kovaya, and Romitsyna (2001) and the PCI (Parent-Child Interaction), by I. Markovskaya (1999).
Th e use of structural analysis to build a factor model has spread widely in the social sciences world (Loehlin, 1998;Hu & Bentler, 1999;Jackson, et al., 2009;Hooper, et al., 2008). Recently this method has also been used extensively among Russian psychologists (Ostapenko, 2013;Krichevec et al., 2018).
Th e general objective of our research was to design tools in Russian that would expand the understanding of the development of emotional autonomy from parents in older adolescence.
Th e specifi c objectives were to improve the Emotional Autonomy Scale (Steinberg & Silverberg, 1986) structure on a Russian sample and to validate it using the Parent-Child Interaction Questionnaire (Markovskaya, 1999).
In Russian developmental psychology, the child-adult relationship system is an object of development (Vygotsky, 2000;Venger, et al., 1988), which perfectly meets the goals of our research.

Participants
Th e sample consisted of 222 pupils from 9th to 11th grades in Moscow schools Th e study was conducted on the basis of the principles of voluntary participation, anonymity, and confi dentiality. Adolescents were informed about the study protocol beforehand. Th e teenagers were given the opportunity to meet individually to discuss individual outcomes. Parents of the adolescents were informed of the study design and signed informed consent.

Procedure
Participants completed the Russian version of Emotional Autonomy Scale (Konshina, 2018). Th e pupils fi lled out the questionnaire in groups of 20 to 30 persons according to school grades during normal school time. Th e EAS questionnaire was one of the battery of techniques suggested to study diff erent aspects of interaction with parents in late adolescence.
Design. Comparative and structural analysis was conducted by the authors to review the reliability of EAS Russian version. Th e methods used were the authors' Russian version of "Emotional Autonomy Scale" by L. Steinberg & S. Silverberg (1986) and "Parental-Child Interaction Questionnaire" (PCI) (Markovskaya, 1999).

Emotional Autonomy Scale
Th e EAS is composed of four subscales: "Deidealization of Parents" (5 items) and "Parents As People" (6 items) -the two cognitive components of EA); and "Nondependency on Parents" (4 items) and "Individuation" (5 items) -the two aff ec-tive components of EA. Th e 20 items of the EAS were rated on the 4-point Likerttype scale that was used in the original EAS procedure suggested by L. Steinberg & S. Silver berg. Th e scale contained four points, from 1 -"strongly disagree" to 4 -"strongly agree. "

Parental-Child Interaction
Th e "Parental-Child Interaction" questionnaire (PCI) was developed by I. Markovskaya as an instrument to describe aspects of parent-child interaction (Markovskaya, 1999). Th e questionnaire contains 60 items distributed among 10 subscales: "Demanding, " "Strictness, " "Autonomy -Control, " "Emotional distance -Intimacy, " "Rejection -Acceptance, " "Cooperation, " "Disagreement -Compliance, " "Inconsistency -Sequence, " "Authority of the Parent, " and "Satisfaction with the Relationship. " Th e questionnaire was presented in two variants -fi rst, for the adolescent's perception of relations with the mother and, second, for the adolescent's perception of relations with the father.
Th e PCI was used for validation of the EAS on the Russian sample as a sound and secure method refl ecting the main aspects of the child-parent relationship in adolescence.

Results
Th e results were statistically analyzed with IBM SPSS program, ver. 21.0. Th e factor analysis was built using the EQS program, ver. 6.2, and the structural model was built using AMOS program, ver. 23.0.

Th e reliability measures
Th e fi rst step of our study was a comparative analysis of EAS reliability in light of previous research.
Th e fi ndings of the research organized in 2016-2017 were compared with the results of the original verifi ed EAS (Steinberg & Silverberg, 1986). Th e internal consistency of the EAS measure of both studies is presented in Table 1. Th e Cronbach's alpha of the EAS Russian version in the 2016-2017 research was a little less than in the original Steinberg & Silverberg research (Steinberg & Silverberg, 1986) over all subscales. Th e general measure was characterized by pretty high reliability (Cronbach's alpha = .73), but three of four subscales had a reliability coeffi cient between .47 and .60 ( Table 1). Such a result is considered to be acceptable.
Th e sample size of the study allowed the use of CFA (Krichevec, et al., 2020;Beyers, et al., 2003).
Th e latest factor research of the EAS was organized in 2005 by W. Beyer and colleagues on a Belgian sample. Beyers' research (2005) showed better functioning with the seven-factor model than the four-factor model. We compare Beyers' results on the Belgian sample and our fi ndings on a Russian sample in Table 2. Table 2 Fit indices for the Four-factor and Seven-factor models - Beyers and colleagues' research, 2005Beyers and colleagues' research, , and author's research, 2016Beyers and colleagues' research, -2017  As can be seen in the table, the four-factor model suggested by L. Steinberg & S. Silverberg (1986) showed better results for the Russian sample than the sevenfactor model suggested by W. Beyers and colleagues. Th e lower RMSEA and SRMR values and higher CFI indicated better fi t.
To establish the suitability of the models, the recommended criteria were used: CFI > .90, RMSEA < .08, SRMR < .08 (Kline, 2011;van de Schoot, et al., 2012). It is known that the best solution is determined by a combination of these parameters. Let's consider the results we obtained.
You can see that the indicators of our model are close to Hu and Bentler's Two-Index Presentation Strategy (1999), where Combinational Rules call for an RMSEA of 0.06 or lower and an SRMR of 0.09 or lower (RMSEA = 0.07; SRMR = 0.092).
Th e purpose of the S. Cangur & I. Ercan study (2015) was to investigate the impact of estimation techniques and sample sizes on model fi t indices in structural equation models constructed according to the number of exogenous latent variables under multivariate normality. It has been shown that the fi ndings of various authors, except for the RMSEA, were quite diff erent from the study results of X. Fan and E.A. Sivo (2007). In addition, S. Cangur & I. Ercan (2015) referred to the work of E.E. Rigdon (1996), who emphasized the need to use RMSEA with large sample sizes and research in which RMSEA and CFI were compared. In CFA results, the model fi t indices were acceptable (RMSEA = 0.07) or slightly less than good fi t values (CFI = 0.74).
Th e factor analysis showed that few items infl uenced more than one subscale, and one item (item 19) could be expected to raise the model reliability ( Table 3).

Th e Validation
Th e next step of our research was to validate the EAS Russian version using an already validated and secure Russian questionnaire.
One instrument most closely related in topic and by instruments used by Russian researchers was the "Parent-Child Interaction" (PCI) questionnaire (Markovskaya, 1999). Adolescents fi lled out the questionnaire in two variants -one for interactions with the mother and the other for interactions with the father.

Th e Interrelation of autonomy development with the child-parent relations of adolescents
Generally, the PCI items are close by sense to the EAS items.
Th ere was a negative interrelationship between "Individuation" (EAS) and, respectively, "Emotional Distance -Intimacy" (PCI) (r = -0.458), "Rejection -Acceptance" (PCI) (r = -0.505), "Cooperation" (PCI) (r = -0.394), "Inconsistency -Sequence" (PCI) (r = -0.471), "Authority of the Parent" (PCI) (r = -0.524), and "Satisfaction with the Relationship" (PCI) (r = -0.485).  In answering the questions about their relationship with their fathers, the adolescents showed a little diff erent result: more subscales of the PCI were signifi cantly correlated with the EAS subscales. Two of them showed positive correlations: the subscale "Parents as People" correlated with the subscale "Demanding" (r = 0.242), and the subscale "Deidealization" correlated with the subscale "Strictness" (r = 0.242). Th e remaining EAS scales had negative associations with the PCI questionnaire (father version) ( Table 4). Table 4 Th e signifi cant correlations between EAS and PCI (father's variant) subscales. In other words, our data allowed us to assume the more diffi cult nature of the links between indicators of the teenagers' emotional autonomy and the features of their relations with their fathers, in comparison with the one with their mothers. Such data corresponds to the results of research on teenagers' separation from their parents done earlier on a Russian sample by T. Syt'ko (2014), V.P. Dzukaeva (2016), and O.V. Sulimina (2016).

Discussion
Higher levels of PCI estimates mean closer and more intimate relations with one's parents (the "Emotional Distance -Intimacy, " "Rejection -Acceptance, " "Cooperation, " "Inconsistency -Sequence, " "Disagreement -Compliance, " and "Satisfaction with the Relationship" subscales) and the perception of more controlling parental behavior ("Demanding, " "Strictness", "Autonomy -Control, " and "Authority of the Parent" subscales). As for the EAS, higher levels of estimates show higher emotional autonomy in four aspects of Parent-Child interaction (the "Deidealization of Parents, " "Perceives Parents As People, " "Nondependency on Parents, " and "Individuation" subscales).
Th e results show that the predictions were borne out. Th ose EAS subscales signifi cantly correlated with the PCI subscales.
Th e "Demanding, " "Strictness, " "Autonomy -Control, " "Rejection-Acceptance, " and "Disagreement-Compliance" subscales of PCI (adolescents' perception of their interactions with the mother) didn't show a signifi cant correlation with any of the EAS subscales.
Th e results refl ect, in our opinion, the nonlinear nature of the association between indicators of teenagers' emotional autonomy, on the one hand, and the parameters of the child-parent relationship, on the other.
Our results show strong negative correlations between EAS and PCI subscales. We can assume that super-autonomous adolescents perceive their relationships with their mothers as more emotionally distant, characterized by more rejection, less cooperation, and more inconsistency. Th e adolescents with a high emotional autonomy level considered their mothers' authority to be low and were less satisfi ed with their relationship with her. Th ese fi ndings are quite predictable and can illustrate the development of autonomy in relations with the mother among adolescents (Collins, & Laursen, 2004). V. P. Dzukaeva's thesis (2016), written under the leadership of T.Yu. Sadovnikovai.e., that the father and mother play diff erent roles in the teenagers' autonomy formation -has been verifi ed.
In the traditional Russian family, the father fi gure is perceived as strict and authoritative. Such results can be explained by the phenomenon of adolescents ceasing to perceive their father fi gure as an authority and now perceiving him as a strict and demanding member of the family. All the following PCI subscales showed negative correlations with the EAS subscales. We can assume, although only for some teenagers, that super-autonomous adolescents perceive their relationships with their father as more emotionally distant and confl ict-ridden , and characterized by more rejection, less cooperation, and more inconsistency. Th e adolescents with the highest emotional autonomy levels considered the authority of their fathers as low, and those teenagers were less satisfi ed with their relations with their fathers.
Th e high predictability of the results can be explained by traditional features of adolescence. As was shown, the Russian version of EAS strongly correlates with the CPI questionnaire.
Th e results can be accepted as a successful approbation and validation of the EAS on a Russian sample.
Th is study aimed to create a model that would fi t Russian realities. By means of analysis, the authors compared the original model fi t (Steinberg, & Silverberg, 1986) to the latest model fi t suggested in the W. Beyers and colleagues' research (Beyers et al., 2005). Th e results showed a better fi t for the original four-factor model: Cronbach's alpha for the EAS = 0.73: for cognitive components (Parental Deidealization and Perceives Parents as People) alpha = 0.55-0.60; and for aff ective components (Nondependency on Parents and Individuation) alpha = 0.48-0.55. Th e confi rmatory factor analysis showed passable fi t indices. In general, the reliability of the Russian EAS version is acceptable.
External validity was checked using the PCI Russian questionnaire, and it was shown to be valid and secure. Th e correlation analysis showed strong correlations between the EAS and PCI subscales. Th ere were indications of a nonlinear nature of the links between indicators of the teenagers' emotional autonomy and the features of their relationships with their parents. Th e super-autonomous adolescents tended to perceive their relations with their mothers and fathers as more distant and characterized by less agreement. Th e protest against the father's authority was expressed among super-autonomous teenagers as the perception of the father as strict and demanding. Th e results were consistent with the theoretical framework of features of the adolescent period. Th e informative aspects of the correlations can be described by the adolescent age features in the conception of the Age-Related Cultural-Historical Approach.
Th e Russian version of the Emotional Autonomy scale can be used as a diagnostic method among practicing psychologists in work with teenagers and their families.
Th is methodology opens up new opportunities for empirical research in the fi eld of developmental psychology and, in a broader context, in the fi eld of personality psychology and psychological well-being. Th e technique can also be used to solve practical problems of psychological diagnosis, counseling, and psychotherapy in adolescence.

Limitations
Th e development of emotional autonomy in the child-parent relationship is an important part of adolescent psychological development. Th e expansion of the Russian methods to measure emotional autonomy will open up to scientists a new way to research this important stage of aging.
Th e fi rst steps of EAS validation on a Russian sample were realized. One limitation of the study was the sample size. One of the ways of improving the validation would be expanding the sample in future research.
Another limitation was the nature of the sample used: students from several schools in Moscow, a megalopolis city. We consider expanding participation to include students from more schools in Moscow, as well as their peers from cities and settlements from other regions (not only megacities), as an important task of further research.
Another limitation was the fact that the fi t indices were acceptable, but not perfect. Th e factor model can be reviewed considering the features of Russian sample.

Ethics Statement
Th e preparation of the manuscript was in accordance with APA ethical and publication standards, and the treatment of research participants was in accordance with the ethical and legal requirements of the Russian Federation. 17. Есть вещи, которые я буду делать иначе, чем моя мать и отец, когда я сам буду родителем (Th ere are things that I will do diff erently from my mother and father when I become a parent) 18. Мои родители вряд ли когда-либо ошибаются (My parents hardly ever make mistakes) 19. Я хотел(а) бы, чтобы мои родители поняли, кто я на самом деле (I wish my parents would understand who I really am) 20. Мои родители ведут себя одинаково со своими друзьями и дома со мной (My parents act pretty much the same way when they are with their friends as they do when they are at home with me)